Distance+Education+Instructional+Design+Models

= **Instructional Design Models for Distance Learning ** = 

The goal of // **[|instructional design]** //for **distance learning** is to organize curriculum materials into sensible and usable formats so that instruction and learning can take place in the online environment. On the topic of instructional design approaches, Mager (2006) states that “since not everything can be learned at once, instruction must be offered in some sort of sequence.” Organizing content to be learned into a sequential pattern can be considered the initial step in planning out a logical learning framework (Mager, 2006).

Multiple considerations including **[|learning theories]** should be considered in addition to the content to be learned. “The different approaches to instructional design are nowhere more obvious than in the ever-growing list of models” (Moore, Bates, & Grundling) .

Models of instruction are usually graphed out as either **[|linear]** or **[|non-linear]** design approaches. In spite of this, the ideologies that support each of the models appear to have related aspects usual to other models.  In the simplest of terms, **[|SCORM]** compliance ensures that content and learning objects written in one format, content management system, or **learning management system** will be transferable, readable, and usable in any other format, content management system, or learning management system.
 * [|Best practices] ** assure that methods of design and instruction meet accepted quality standards for effective learning outcomes. The Sloan-C Consortium provides peer reviewed tried and true “Effective Practices” and invites educational designers and practitioners to contribute new practices on a continual basis.

__History of Instructional Design Models__
Modern **[|instructional design models]** emerged during a historical period of national crisis. According to Leigh,  “ the advent of the Second World War presented a tremendous instructional dilemma: the rapid training of hundreds of thousands of military personnel” was urgently needed. During this time, psychologists and educators were recruited to design efficient instructional design models.

__Instructional Design: Art & Science__
Nichols (2008) views instructional design as both "art and science." Given the complexity of the design process using models as templates, Nichols supports the idea that "designers must still make key decisions to ensure that structured learning takes place, and they must emphasize particular learning outcomes." The "art" is equated with designers' abilities to work "innovately" within the "science" of a framework.

__Definitions__
[|****Instructional design****] is the systematic process of translating general principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and learning.  [|****Instructional designers****]: According to Herrington and Oliver (2002), “ designers need to consider and plan the learning processes that will provide learners with the experiences that will help them to learn. The learning processes need to be carefully planned with the intended learning outcomes in mind. Planning the learning experiences involves consideration of ways to engage the learners in ways that will cause the required forms of cognition and thinking. The learning activities need to involve a variety of processes that will cause the learners to deal meaningfully with appropriate resources and information.” An [|****instructional systems design (ISD)****] for distance learning is an organizational plan or format used to achieve instructional or pedagogical goals. It is an approach or set of rules for achieving technology-based instruction.

[|****Pedagogical strategy****] is the method of delivering face-to-face or online instruction.  <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: black; font-size: 11pt; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msofareastfontfamily: SimSun; msofareastlanguage: ZH-CN; msobidilanguage: AR-SA;">According to Johnson (1997) (2), ideal **instructional design strategy** includes incorporation of “ behavioral learning theory (e.g., positive reinforcement and repetition), cognitive learning theory (e.g., address multiple senses, present new information in motivating ways, limit the amount of information presented, and connect new information to prior knowledge), and social learning theory (e.g., encourage group interaction, peer assessment, and personal feedback). Adopting a synthesized theory of learning can have a synergistic result by integrating the most positive and powerful aspects of each individual.”

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">According to Morrison, Ross, & Kemp (2007), a well-designed [|**instructional strategy**] prompts or motivates learners to actively construct meaning between what they already know and new knowledge being presented <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">(as cited in Wittrock, 1974, 1989, & Jonassen, 1985, & Grabowski, 1996).

<span style="text-align: left; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #000000; font-size: 12pt;">__Four Approaches to Instructional Design__
According to Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek (2006) there are four traditional course design approaches: Linear-designed instruction; branch-designed instruction, hypercontent-designed instruction, and learner-directed design.

The [|****linear-designed****] approach is based on module organization that allows learners to transition through series of readings and tasks in specific and ordered processions. Learning is sequentially organized (Simonson et al., 2006). <span style="font-family: Arial; color: black; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">
 * Branch-designed instruction ** allows more flexibility in the order that readings and tasks are accomplished. This format is basically linear with opportunities for learners to further study in a particular area or to move on to the next level or module. There are built-in assessments that allow students to re-try learning or to move students backward to remedial areas of instruction (Simonson et al., 2006).


 * Hypercontent design, ** according to Simonson et al. (2006), “topics can be studied in a random, non-sequential manner.” Additionally, they state that students working within this framework have control over the topics studied and can do so without direct instructor control. This concept typically includes text and multimedia components such as video, audio, graphics, and pictures.

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #000000; font-size: 11pt; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msofareastfontfamily: SimSun; msofareastlanguage: ZH-CN; msobidilanguage: AR-SA;">** Learner-directed ** ** design ** <span style="font-family: Arial; color: black; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">allows students to completely determine navigation through a course. According to Simonson et al. (2006), “learners construct their own instructional strategies and even their own instructional design.” This is considered a constructivist design model that supports completely learner driven objectives. The authors caution, however, that learners “require considerable talent and effort…to be successful” in this type of learning environment. <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

** __Commonly Used Instructional Design Models__ **
Analysis --> Design --> Development --> Implementation --> Evaluation ** <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> The **[|Dick and Carey]** Systems Approach Model was originally published in 1978, and later editions (1990) by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled [|****The Systematic Design of Instruction****]**.**
 * [|ADDIE] ** is an acronym that stands for a five step design process. This model seems to be the most universally accepted, and is often used as an underlying design platform to which elements from other models are added. <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">According to Kruse (2009), “the ADDIE model has been criticized by some as being //too// systematic, that is, too linear, too inflexible, too constraining, and even too time-consuming to implement." **<span style="text-align: center; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #188f95; font-size: 120%;">



<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes." With this nine-step model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly. [|Kemp Model] ** of Instructional Design ** is a six-step non-linear plan ****. **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">




 * [|Gagne Model] of Instruction ** is a nine-step instructional plan that [|****Robert Gagne****] conceived based on the premise that certain “instructional events” must occur in order for learning to take place.




 * <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

[|ASSURE] ****<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">integrates components of [|****Gagne’s****] model for effective multimedia use ****<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">. **<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; msoansilanguage: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; msofareastfontfamily: SimSun; msofareastlanguage: ZH-CN; msobidilanguage: AR-SA;"> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #008080; font-size: 140%;">A nalyze learners <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #008080; font-size: 140%;">S tate objectives <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #008080; font-size: 140%;">S elect instructional methods, media, and materials <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #008080; font-size: 140%;">U tilize media and materials <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #008080; font-size: 140%;">R equire learner participation <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #008080; font-size: 140%;">E valuate and revise **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #008080; font-size: 120%;">ASSURE Model

References <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Dick, W. & Carey, L. (1990). The systematic design of instruction //.// Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown Higher Education. <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Herrington, J. (2002). Online learning design for dummies: Professional development strategies for beginning online designers //.// Edith Cowan University. <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Retrieved June 21, 2009, from [] <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">

Johnson, S. & Aragon, S., In Egan, T. & Lynham, S. (Eds.), //Proceedings of the academy for human resource development// (pp. 1022- 1029). Bowling Green, OH: AHRD.

Kruse, K. Introduction to instructional design and the ADDIE model. Retrieved  July 2, 2009, from    []

Leigh, D. A brief history of instructional design. //The International Society for Performance Improvement//. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from  [|http://www.pigncispi.com/articles/education/brief%20history.htm]

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Mager, R. F. (1988). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Co.

Mager, R. F. (2006). Making instruction work (Rev. 2nd ed.). Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.

Martin, F. (2008). Effects of practice in a linear and non-linear web-based learning environment. <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> //Educational Technology &// // Society //, // 11 // (4), 81–93.

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Moore//,// D//.,// Bates, A., & Grundling//,// J//.// Instructional design. //Commonwealth of Learning//. Chapter 08. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from __ http://www.col.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/Skills_Chapter08.pdf __ Morrison, G., Ross, S., & Kemp, J. (2007). Designing effective instruction (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Jonh Wiley & Sons, Inc.

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Nichols, M. Laidlaw College, Auckland, New Zealand, (August 2008). //E-primer series – designing for e-learning. No. 3: designing for e-learning (p. 9).//

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2006). Teaching and learning at a distance (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #000000; font-size: 11pt;">